Circular Migration of Young Sahrawis Between the Sahrawi Refugee Camps in Algeria and Spain. The Cultural Aspects of Agency within the Precarisation of Legal Status

Marta Kluszczyńska

doi:10.14422/mig.2024.022

Autores/as

Marta Kluszczyńska Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7168-4281

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.14422/mig.2024.022

Palabras clave:

España, saharauis, migración circular, apátridas, exilio

Resumen

Este artículo describe la práctica de la migración circular desde los campamentos de refugiados saharauis de Tinduf (Argelia) a España con el objetivo de trabajar en la industria hostelera de las Islas Baleares. Esta migración proporciona apoyo económico a las familias que viven en los campamentos y permite a los migrantes volver para pasar las vacaciones con los familiares que viven allí. Los jóvenes emigrantes pretenden legalizar su estancia y trabajar en España lo antes posible, la mayoría de las veces a través del estatuto de apátrida. No obstante, esta forma de regularizar la residencia tiene un efecto de precarización de su situación legal en comparación con la ciudadanía.

Descargas

Los datos de descargas todavía no están disponibles.

Citas

Almenara-Niebla, S. (2020). Making digital “home-camps”: Mediating emotions among the Sahrawi refugee diaspora. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 23(5), 728-744. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367877920921876

Almenara-Niebla, S. (2022). Digital emotivescapes: Everyday media practices of Sahrawi refugee diasporic women in Spain and Mauritania. Migration Studies, 10(4), 563-581. https://doi.org/10.1093/migration/mnac011

Almenara-Niebla, S. (2023). «You have raised me between two worlds»: Mothers, daughters, and emotions in the Sahrawi digital diaspora in Spain. Feminismo/s, (41), 215-239. https://doi.org/10.14198/fem.2023.41.09

Almenara Niebla, S., & Ascanio Sánchez, C. (2018). Identidades en desastres prolongados. Escenarios transnacionales desde los campamentos de refugiados Saharauis. Papeles del CEIC. International Journal on Collective Identity Research, 1, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1387/pceic.17661

Angeloni, G., & Carr, J. (2018). Animal and human health in the Sahrawi refugee camps. Forced Migration Review, 58, 80-82.

Burawoy, M. (1976). The Functions and Reproduction of Migrant Labor: Comparative Material from Southern Africa and the United States. American Journal of Sociology, 81(5), 1050-1087.

Brettell, C. B. (2022). Theorizing Migration in Anthropology: The Cultural, Social, Phenomenological, and Embodied Dimensions of Human Mobility. In C. B. Brettell & J. F. Hollifield (eds.), Migration Theory. Talking across Disciplines (4ᵗʰ ed., pp. 194-231). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003121015-6

Castles, S. (2006). Guestworkers in Europe: A Resurrection? International Migration Review, 40(4), 741-766. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2006.00042.x

Chatty, D. (2010). Deterritorialized Youth: Sahrawi and Afghan Refugees at the Margins of the Middle East. Berghahn Books. https://doi.org/10.3167/9781845456535

Collier, J. F., & Yanagisako, S. (1989). Theory in Anthropology since feminist practice. Critique of Anthropology, 9(2), 27-37. https://doi.org/10.1177/0308275X8900900203

Cresswell, T. (2010). Towards a politics of mobility. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 28, 17-31. https://doi.org/10.1068/d11407

Delgado-Wise, R. (2015). Migration and development in Latin America. The emergence of a southern perspective. In A. Triandafyllidou (ed.), Routledge Handbook of Immigration and Refugee Studies (pp. 278-284). Routledge.

Easton-Calabria, E. E. (2022). Refugees, Self-reliance, Development: A Critical History. Bristol University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv2mm1xw4

European Migration Network. (2011). European Migration Network Temporary and Circular Migration: Empirical Evidence, Current Policy Practice and Future Options in EU Member States. Publications Office of the European Union.

Falzon, M. A. (2009). Introduction. In M. A. Falzon (ed.), Multi-Sited Ethnography. Theory, Praxis and Locality in Contemporary Research (pp. 1-24). Routledge.

Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, E. (2011). Paradoxes of Sahrawi refugees’ educational migration: promoting self-sufficiency or renewing dependency? Comparative Education, 47(4), 433-447. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2011.560710

Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, E. (2017). South-South Educational Migration, Humanitarianism and Development. Views from the Caribbean, North Africa and the Middle East. Routledge.

Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, E. (2019). From Roots to Rhizomes: Mapping Rhizomatic Strategies in the Sahrawi and Palestinian Protracted Refugee Situations. In M. Bradley, J. Milner & B. Peruniak (eds.), Refugees’ Roles in Resolving Displacement and Building Peace: Beyond Beneficiaries (pp. 247-266). Georgetown University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvfrxq90.18

Finden, A. (2018). Active Women and Ideal Refugees: Dissecting Gender, Identity and Discourse in the Sahrawi Refugee Camps. Feminist Review, 120(1), 37-53. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41305-018-0139-2

Fitzgerald, D. (2006). Towards a Theoretical Ethnography of Migration. Qualitative Sociology, 29(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11133-005-9005-6

Fontanari, E., & Ambrosini, M. (2018). Into the Interstices: Everyday Practices of Refugees and Their Supporters in Europe’s Migration “Crisis”. Sociology, 52(3), 587-603. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038518759458

Gappmayer, G. (2019). Exploring neoliberalism in care for people with intellectual disabilities: A practice theory approach. Journal of Occupational Science, 26(2), 258-274. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2019.1596830

Garcés-Estrada, C., Leiva-Gómez, S., & Comelin-Fornés, A. (2022). Interseccionalidades y trabajo de cuidado: migración circular boliviana en el norte de Chile. Apuntes, 90, 119-145. https://doi.org/10.21678/apuntes.90.1409

Garín-Muñoz, T., & Montero-Martín, L. F. (2007). Tourism in the Balearic Islands: A dynamic model for international demand using panel data. Tourism Management, 28(5), 1224-1235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2006.09.024

Gila, O. A., Zaratiegui, A. U., & De Maturana Diéguez, V. L. (2011). Western Sahara: Migration, Exile and Environment. International Migration, 49, e146-e163. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2010.00665.x

Gómez Martín, C. (2010). Saharauis: una migración circular entre España y los campamentos de refugiados de Tinduf. In C. de Castro Pericacho (ed.), Mediterráneo Migrante. Tres décadas de flujos migratorios (pp. 29-45). Universidad de Murcia.

Gómez Martín, C. (2011). La migración saharaui en España: estrategias de visibilidad en el tercer tiempo del exilio. Editorial Académica Española.

Gómez Martín, C. (2016). La organización política y social de los saharauis en España. Desarrollo y desafíos de las asociaciones de migrantes. Kamchatka. Revista de análisis cultural, 7, 125-138. https://doi.org/10.7203/KAM.7.8501

Gómez Martín, C. (2017). Rethinking the Concept of a “Durable Solution”: Sahrawi Refugee Camps Four Decades On. Ethics and International Affairs, 31(1), 31-45. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0892679416000642

Inchausti-Sintes, F., Voltes-Dorta, A., & Suau-Sánchez, P. (2020). The income elasticity gap and its implications for economic growth and tourism development: the Balearic vs the Canary Islands. Current Issues in Tourism, 1, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1722618

Isidoros, K. (2020). Nomads and Nation-Building in the Western Sahara. Gender, Politics and the Sahrawi. Bloomsbury Publishing.

Joppe, M. (2012). Migrant workers: Challenges and opportunities in addressing tourism labour shortages. Tourism Management, 33(3), 662-671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2011.07.009

Kelegama, S., & Weeraratne, B. (2015). Migration and Economic Remittances. Impact on development. In A. Triandafyllidou (ed.), Handbook of Immigration and Refugee Studies (pp. 209-215). Routledge.

Kleist, N. (2017). Introduction. Studying Hope and Uncertainty in African Migration. In N. Kleist & D. Thorsen (eds.), Hope and Uncertainty in Contemporary African Migration (pp. 1-20). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315659916-1

Kluszczyńska, M. (2022a). Sahrawi Migration in the Context of a Protracted Refugee Situation – a Description of the Phenomenon and Critical Analysis of the State of Research. Studia Migracyjne – Przegląd Polonijny, 1(183), 137-155. https://doi.org/10.4467/25444972SMPP.22.001.13888

Kluszczyńska, M. (2022b). Uzyskać obywatelstwo czy odzyskać prawo do jego posiadania? Postkolonialne odzyskiwanie hiszpańskiego obywatelstwa przez Saharyjki i Saharyjczyków w Hiszpanii. Studia Migracyjne – Przegląd Polonijny, 3(185), 41-60. https://doi.org/10.4467/25444972SMPP.22.022.16723

Kluszczyńska, M. (2023). When Uncertainty is the Only Constancy: The Agency and Serious Games of Sahrawi Men Migrating to Spanish Cities. Lidé města / Urban People, 2(25), 219-238. https://doi.org/10.14712/12128112.4143

Ley 12/2009, de 30 de octubre, reguladora del derecho de asilo y de la protección subsidiaria (BOE núm. 263, de 31 de octubre).

Loewenberg, S. (2005). Displacement is permanent for the Sahrawi refugees. The Lancet, 365(9467), 1295-1296. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)61010-0

López Baroni, M. J. (2014). Apátridas saharauis en España: Europa y su memoria. Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional, 1(14), 381-433. https://doi.org/10.22201/iij.24487872e.2014.14.459

López Belloso, M. (2016). Migration and Vulnerability: Challenges, Implications and Difficulties Faced by the Sahrawi Migrant Population. The Age of Human Rights Journal, (7), 29-49. https://doi.org/10.17561/tahrj.n7.8

López-Sala, A., & Godenau, D. (2016). En torno a la Circularidad Migratoria: Aproximaciones conceptuales, Dimensiones teóricas y Práctica Política. Migraciones, (38), 9-34. https://doi.org/10.14422/mig.i38y2015.001

Mahmood, S. (2009). Agency, Performativity and the Feminist Subject. In L. Sjørup & H. Rømer Christensen (eds.), Pieties and Gender (pp. 13-45). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004178267.i-236.5

Manby, B. (2020). Nationality and Statelessness Among Persons of Western Saharan Origin. Journal of Immigration, Asylum and Nationality Law, 34(1), 9-29.

Marcus, G. E. (1995). Ethnography in/of the World System: The Emergence of Multi-Sited Ethnography. Annual Review of Anthropology, 24(1), 95-117. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.24.1.95

Massa, A. (2020). Borders and Boundaries as Resources for Mobility. Multiple Regimes of Mobility and Incoherent Trajectories on the Ethiopian-Eritrean Border. Geoforum, 116, 262-271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2018.01.007

McGarry, O., Krisjane, Z., Sechi, G., MacÉinrí, P., Berzins, M., & Apsite-Berina, E. (2019). Human capital and life satisfaction among circular migrants: an analysis of extended mobility in Europe. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 47(8), 1883-1901. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2019.1679421

Mitchell, J. C. (1985). Towards a situational sociology of wage-labour circulation. In R. M. Prothero & M. Chapman (eds.), Circulation in Third World Countries. Routledge.

Newland, K. (2009). Circular migration and human development [Human Development Research Paper, 42]. United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report.

Ortner, S. B. (2005). Subjectivity and cultural critique. Anthropological Theory, 5(1), 31-52. https://doi.org/10.1177/1463499605050867

Ouchene, M., & Massebiau, P. (2018, september). Sahrawi Livelihoods in Algeria. Building self-sufficiency [Case Study]. OXFAM. https://doi.org/10.21201/2018.3347

Pawlak, M. (2018). Zawstydzona tożsamość: emocje, ideologie i władza w życiu polskich migrantów w Norwegii. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego.

Plewa, P. (2013). The Politics of Seasonal Labour Migration in Switzerland, France and Spain. International Migration, 51(6), 101-117. https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12134

Polo, C., & Valle, E. (2008). An Assessment of the Impact of Tourism in the Balearic Islands. Tourism Economics, 14(3), 615-630. https://doi.org/10.5367/000000008785633604

Rahim, A., Rayp, G., & Ruyssen, I. (2021). Circular Migration: Triple Win or Renewed Interests of Destination Countries? [UNU-CRIS Working Paper]. UNU Insitute on Comparative Regional Integration Studies.

Ramsay, G. (2020). Humanitarian exploits: Ordinary displacement and the political economy of the global refugee regime. Critique of Anthropology, 40(1), 3-27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0308275X19840417

Real Decreto 865/2001, de 20 de julio, por el que se aprueba el Reglamento de reconocimiento del estatuto de apátrida (BOE núm. 174, de 21 de julio. Corrección de errores en BOE núm. 276, de 17 de noviembre).

Real Decreto 557/2011, de 20 de abril, por el que se aprueba el Reglamento de la Ley Orgánica 4/2000, sobre derechos y libertades de los extranjeros en España y su integración social, tras su reforma por Ley Orgánica 2/2009 (BOE núm. 103, de 30/04/2011).

Rivero, I. (2013). Vida y educación en los campamentos de refugiados saharauis (Doctoral dissertation). Universidad de Valladolid, Palencia. http://uvadoc.uva.es/handle/10324/4785

San Martín, P. (2009). “Estos Locos Cubarauis!”: The Hispanisation of Saharawi Society (... after Spain). Journal of Transatlantic Studies, 7(3), 249-63. https://doi.org/10.1080/14794010903069086

Shutes, I. (2021). Gender, Migration and the Inequalities of Care. In C. Mora & N. Piper (eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Gender and Migration (pp. 107-120). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63347-9_7

Skeldon, R. (1985). Circulation: A transition in mobility in Peru. In R. M. Prothero & M. Chapman (eds.), Circulation in Third World Countries. Routledge.

Stark, O., & Bloom, D. E. (1985). The New Economics of Labor Migration. The American Economic Review, 75(2), 173-178.

Tavakoli, J. (2020). Cultural Entrepreneurship of Sahrawi Refugees. African Identities, 18(3), 279-294. https://doi.org/10.1080/14725843.2020.1777086

Taylor, E. (1999). The New Economics of Labour Migration and the Role of Remittances in the Migration Process. International Migration, 37(1), 63-88. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2435.00066

Triandafyllidou, A. (2013). Circular Migration. Introductory Remarks. In A. Triandafyllidou (ed.), Circular Migration between Europe and its Neighbourhood: Choice or Necessity? (pp. 1-21) Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199674510.003.0001

UNHCR. (2011). Promoting Livelihoods and Self-reliance. Operational Guidance on Refugee Protection and Solutions in Urban Areas.

UNHCR. (2022). Algeria. Operational update. May-October 2022.

UNHCR, CISP, WFP. (2019). Nutrition Survey Sahrawi Refugee Camps, Tindouf, Algeria.

Venturini, A. (2008). Circular Migration as an Employment Strategy for Mediterranean Countries [CARIM Analytic and Synthetic Notes, CARIM-AS 2008/39]. Robert Schuman Center for Advanced Studies.

Walia, H. (2021). Border & Rule: Global Migration, Capitalism, and the Rise of Racist Nationalism. Haymarket Books.

WFP. (2017). WFP Algeria Country Brief. August 2017.

WFP. (2018). Food Security Assessment for Sahrawi Refugees. World Food Programme.

Wilson, A. (2012). Cycles of Crisis, Migration and the Formation of New Political Identities in Western Sahara [Working Papers 25]. CEPED - Centre Population et Développement. https://www.ceped.org/IMG/pdf/ceped_wp25.pdf

Wilson, A. (2016). Sovereignty in Exile: A Saharan Liberation Movement Governs. University of Pennsylvania Press. https://doi.org/10.9783/9780812293159

Zunes, S., & Mundy, J. (2022). Western Sahara: War Nationalism and Conflict Irresolution (2ⁿᵈ ed.). Syracuse University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1prsrdd