Human Trafficking and Migration: An Exploration of the Spanish Protection System from a Comparative Perspective

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.14422/mig.i54y2022.012

Keywords:

human trafficking, migration, residence permit, recovery and reflection period, identification

Abstract

Spain has a large number of migrants among victims of human trafficking. Thus, this article provides a critical approach to the Spanish protection system aimed at such victims. A comparative analysis with five European countries was performed to this end. The results show that Spain has a poor infrastructure to conduct the identification process. As a result, undetected victims are prevented from accessing formal protection coverage and access to the recovery and reflection period, as well as a residence permit, is blocked. To ensure victims’ rights and assistance, Spain should articulate an identification system made up of a more significant number of specialised agents, as seen in the British, Portuguese and Dutch model. Given the high migration component of human trafficking, such system should be particularly qualified in cultural diversity.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Achotegui, J. (2009). Migración y salud mental. El síndrome del inmigrante con estrés crónico y múltiple (síndrome de Ulises). Zerbitzuan, 46(163).

APRAMP - Asistencia integral de las víctimas de trata de seres humanos con fines de explotación sexual. (2017). Guía de intervención con víctimas de trata para ayuntamientos y trabajadores sociales. https://apramp.org/download/guia-de-intervencion-con-victimas-detrata-para-ayuntamientos-y-trabajadoresas-sociales/?wpdmdl=1324

Bryant, K. y Landman, T. (2020). Combatting Human Trafficking since Palermo: What Do We Know about What Works? Journal of Human Trafficking, 6(2), 119-140. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322705.2020.1690097

Bundesregierung. (2020, 22 de diciembre). Hilfe Telefon. Gewalt gegen frauen. https://www.hilfetelefon.de/

Carrillo, L., Mokrani, M. y Zuppiroli, J. (2017). ¿De qué se trata? Visibilizando otras finalidades de la trata de seres humanos. Accem. https://www.accem.es/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Informe-DEQUESETRATA.pdf

Carrillo, L. y Gasperis, T. de. (2019). La otra cara de la trata. Informe diagnóstico sobre otras formas de trata que afectan a las mujeres. Accem. https://www.accem.es/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/LA-OTRA-CARA-DE-LA-TRATA-NOVICOM-2019.pdf

Centro de Inteligencia contra el Terrorismo y el Crimen Organizado (CITCO). (2019). Trata de seres humanos en España. Balance estadístico 2014-18. Ministerio del Interior. Secretaría de Estado de Seguridad. http://www.interior.gob.es/documents/10180/8736571/Balance+Ministerio+FINAL+2014-18.pdf/2051e1f9-5248-49e0-ab48-ae9dee5e53bc

CoMensha. (2020, 23 de diciembre). Coördinatiecentrum tegen Mensenhandel. https://www.comensha.nl/

David, F., Bryant, K. y Joudo Larsen, J. (2019). Migrants and their vulnerability. To human trafficking, modern slavery and forced labour. International Organization for Migration (IOM). https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/migrants_and_their_vulnerability.pdf

Defensor del Pueblo. (2012). La trata de seres humanos en España: víctimas invisibles. https://www.defensordelpueblo.es/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/2012-09-Trata-de-seres-humanos-en-Espa%C3%B1a-v%C3%ADctimas-invisibles-ESP.PDF

Defensor del Pueblo. (2016). El asilo en España. La protección internacional y los recursos del sistema de acogida. https://www.defensordelpueblo.es/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Asilo_en_Espa%C3%B1a_2016.pdf

European Comission. (2013). The EU rights of victims of trafficking in human beings. Publications Office of the European Union. https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/e-library/docs/thb_victims_rights/thb_victims_rights_en.pdf

European Comission. (2014). Identification of victims of trafficking in human beings in international protection and forced procedures. Home Affairs. https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/what-we-do/networks/european_migration_network/reports/docs/emnstudies/emn_synthesis_identification_victims_trafficking_final_13march2014.pdf

European Comission. (2018). Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council. Second report on the progress made in the fight against trafficking in human beings (2018) as required under Article 20 of Directive 2011/36/EU on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings and protecting its victims. COM (2018) 777 final. https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/what-we-do/policies/european-agenda-security/20181204_com-2018-777-report_en.pdf

European Commission - Migration and Home Affairs. (2018). Data collection on trafficking in human beings in the EU. Publications of the European Union. https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/what-we-do/policies/european-agenda-security/20181204_data-collection-study.pdf

European Commission - Migration and Home Affairs. (2020). Data collection on trafficking in human beings in the EU. Publications of the European Union. https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/sites/antitrafficking/files/study_on_data_collection_on_trafficking_in_human_beings_in_the_eu.pdf

FEI - France Expertise Internationale. (2013). Guidelines for the first level identification of victims of trafficking in Europe. Ministère des Affaires étrangères. http://www.renate-europe.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/2014.11_identification_1_GUIDELINES.pdf

Fernández, G. y Waisman, V. (2016). Implementation of Directive 2011/36/EU from a gender perspective in Spain. En A. Scherrer y H. Werner (eds.), Trafficking in Human Beings from a Gender Perspective Directive 2011/36/EU. European Implementation Assessment (pp. 212-239). European Parliamentary Research Service. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/581412/EPRS_STU(2016)581412_EN.pdf

Fouladvand, S. y Ward, T. (2019). Human trafficking, vulnerability and the state. The Journal of Criminal Law, 83(1), 39-54. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022018318814373

García, S. (2012). La trata en España: una interpretación de los Derechos Humanos en perspectiva de género. Dilemata, 10, 45-64.

Gobierno de España. (2011a). Protocolo Marco de protección de las víctimas de trata de seres humanos. https://violenciagenero.igualdad.gob.

Gobierno de España. (2011b). Anexo 1 al Protocolo. Pautas para la entrevista a posibles víctimas. https://www.bienestaryproteccioninfantil.es/imagenes/tablaContenidos03SubSec/Protocolo_Marco_proteccion_victimas_trata.pdf

Gobierno de España. (2011c). Anexo 2 al Protocolo. Identificadores para la identificación de víctimas. https://www.bienestaryproteccioninfantil.es/imagenes/tablaContenidos03SubSec/Protocolo_Marco_proteccion_victimas_trata.pdf

Gobierno de España. (2011d). Anexo 3 al Protocolo. Información que debe proporcionarse a las víctimas. https://violenciagenero.igualdad.gob.es/gl/otrasFormas/trata/normativa-Protocolo/marco/docs/ANEXO3protocoloTSH.pdf

Gobierno de España. (2018). Anexo 4 al Protocolo. Guía de recursos existentes para la atención a víctimas de trata con fines de explotación sexual. https://violenciagenero.igualdad.gob.es/gl/otrasFormas/trata/normativaProtocolo/marco/docs/ResumenGuiaWebMapasJulio2018.pdf

Governo de Portugal. (2014a). Sistema de referenciação nacional de vítimas de tráfico de seres humanos. https://www.cig.gov.pt/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Sistema-de-referencia%C3%A7%C3%A3o-nacional-de-v%C3%ADtimas-de-tr%C3%A1fico-deseres-humanos.pdf

Governo de Portugal. (2014b). Sistema de referenciação nacional de vítimas de tráfico de seres humanos. Fluxograma. http://cid.cig.gov.pt/Nyron/Library/Catalog/winlibimg.aspx?skey=0E20B9FDAD87420E916AF496F64A680C&doc=95878&img=139318&save=true

Governo de Portugal. (2015a). Ferramenta prática para a sinalização de vítimas de tráfico de seres humanos para fins de exploração laboral. http://cid.cig.gov.pt/Nyron/Library/Catalog/winlibimg.aspx?skey=0E20B9FDAD87420E916AF496F64A680C&doc=95878&img=139315&save=true

Governo de Portugal. (2015b). Ferramenta prática para a sinalização de vítimas de tráfico de seres humanos para fins de exploração sexual. http://cid.cig.gov.pt/Nyron/Library/Catalog/winlibimg.aspx?skey=0E20B9FDAD87420E916AF496F64A680C&doc=95878&img=139316&save=true

Governo de Portugal. (2015c). Ferramenta prática para a sinalização de vítimas de tráfico de seres humanos para mendicidade forçada e atividades ilícitas. http://cid.cig.gov.pt/Nyron/Library/Catalog/winlibimg.aspx?skey=0E20B9FDAD87420E916AF496F64A680C&doc=95878&img=139317&save=true

GRETA - Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings. (2016). Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by the United Kingdom. Second evaluation round. Council of Europe. https://rm.coe.int/16806abcdc

GRETA - Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings. (2017). Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by Portugal. Second evaluation round. Council of Europe. https://rm.coe.int/16806fe673

GRETA - Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings. (2018a). Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by Spain. Second evaluation round. Council of Europe. https://rm.coe.int/greta-2018-7-frg-esp-en/16808b51e0

GRETA - Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings. (2018b). Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by the Netherlands. Second evaluation round. Council of Europe. https://rm.coe.int/greta-2018-19-fgr-nld-en/16808e70ca

GRETA - Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings. (2018c). Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by Italy. Second evaluation round. Council of Europe. https://rm.coe.int/greta-2018-28-fgr-ita/168091f627

GRETA - Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings. (2019). Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by Germany. Second evaluation round. Council of Europe. https://rm.coe.int/greta-2019-07-fgr-deu-en/1680950011

Home Office. (2014). Modern slavery strategy. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/383764/Modern_Slavery_Strategy_FINAL_DEC2015.pdf

Home Office. (2016). Victims of modern slavery – frontline staff guidance. Version 3.0. https://www.antislaverycommissioner.co.uk/media/1057/victims-of-modern-slavery-frontline-staff-guidance-v3.pdf

IOM - International Labour Organization y Walk Free Foundation. (2017). Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced labour and forced marriage. International Labour Office (ILO). https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_575479.pdf

IOM - International Organization for Migration (IOM). (2017). Flow Monitoring Surveys: The Human Trafficking and Other Exploitative Practices Prevalence Indication Survey. https://migration.iom.int/docs/FMS_CT_Analysis_male%20female_Central_Eastern_2017.pdf

IOM - International Organization for Migration (IOM). (2019). World Migration Report 2020. IOM. https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/wmr_2020.pdf

Jiménez, M. y Tarancón, P. (2018). Perspectivas de profesionales del tercer sector sobre la intervención con víctimas de trata con fines de explotación sexual. Revista Electrónica de Ciencia Penal y Criminología, 20-25, 1-25.

KOK. (2018). Evaluation Report on the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by the parties to the treaty. https://www.kok-gegen-menschenhandel.de/fileadmin/user_upload/medien/Publikationen_KOK/KOK_NGO_Report_to_GRETA_2nd_Evaluation_Round_01.03.18.pdf

KOK. (2020, 17 de diciembre). Menschenhandel. https://www.kok-gegen-menschenhandel.de/menschenhandel

Mansur Días, G. (2017). Trata de personas, tráfico de migrantes y la gobernabilidad de la migración a través del crimen. Etnográfica, 21(3), 541-554. https://doi.org/10.4000/etnografica.5026

Meneses, C., Uroz, J., Rúa, A., Gortázar, C. y Castaño, M. J. (2015). Apoyando a las Víctimas de Trata. Las necesidades de las mujeres víctimas de trata con fines de explotación sexual desde la perspectiva de las entidades especializadas y profesionales involucradas. Propuesta para la sensibilización contra la trata. Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e Igualdad. https://violenciagenero.igualdad.gob.es/violenciaEnCifras/estudios/investigaciones/2015/pdf/Apoyando_Victimas_Trata.pdf

Milano, V. (2016). Protección de las víctimas de trata con fines de explotación sexual. Estándares internacionales en materia de enfoque de derechos humanos y retos relativos a su aplicación en España. Revista electrónica de estudios internacionales, 32, 1-54. https://doi.org/10.17103/reei.32.05

Minderoo Foundation. (2019). Measurement, action, freedom: An independent assessment of government progress towards achieving UN sustainable development goal 8.7. https://cdn.globalslaveryindex.org/2019-content/uploads/2019/07/17123602/walk.free_.MAF_190717_FNL_DIGITAL-P.pdf

Morondo, D. (2016). ¿Un nuevo paradigma para la igualdad? La vulnerabilidad entre la condición humana y la situación de indefensión. CEFD, 34, 205-221. https://doi.org/10.7203/CEFD.34.8916

Obokata, T. (2006). Trafficking in Human Beings from a Human Rights Perspective: Towards a Holistic Approach. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004154056.i-247

Oram, S., Abas, M., Bick, D., Boyle, A., French, R., Jakobowitz, S., Khondoker, M., Stanley, N., Trevillion, K., Howard, L. y Zimmerman, C. (2016). Human trafficking and health: a survey of male and female survivors in England. American Journal of Public Health, 106(6), 1073-78. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2016.303095

OSCE – Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. (2004). National Referral Mechanisms. Joining Efforts to Protect the Rights of Trafficked Persons. A Practical Handbook. OSCE/ODIHR. https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/0/4/13967.pdf

Piotrowicz, R., Skrivankova, K., Heide, B. y Wijers, M. (2016). Implementation of Directive 2011/36/EU from a gender perspective in Germany, Lithuania, Romania, Sweden, the Netherlands and the UK. En A. Scherrer y H. Werner (eds.), European Implementation Assessment (pp. 115-169). European Parliamentary Research Service. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/581412/EPRS_STU(2016)581412_EN.pdf

Polatside, V. y Mujaj, E. (2018). Road map for integration of victims of human trafficcking among migrants in Finland, Germany and Sweden. The Council of the Baltic Sea States. https://cbss.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Integration-RoadMap-Victims-of-Human-Trafficking_ENG.pdf

Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri y Organizzazione Internazionale del Lavoro. (2011). Il lavoro forzato e la tratta di esseri umani. Manuale per gli ispetto ri del lavoro. https://www.osservatoriointerventitratta.it/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/allegato-3-manuale-ispettori-del-lavoro.pdf

Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri. (2017). Meccanismo Nazionale di Referral per le Persone Trafficate in Italia. https://www.osservatoriointerventitratta.it/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/allegato-1-meccanismo-nazionale-referral.pdf

Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri. (2018). Linee guida per la definizione di un mecanismo di rapida identificazione delle vittime di tratta e grave sfruttamento. https://www.osservatoriointerventitratta.it/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/allegato-2-linee-guida-rapida-identificazione.pdf

RECTP – Red Española contra la Trata de Personas. (2015). Informe de la Red Española contra la Trata de Personas para la Coordinadora Europea de lucha contra la trata. https://www.bienestaryproteccioninfantil.es/fuentes1.asp?sec=20&subs=233&cod=2197&page=

Rijksoverheid. (2018). Samen tegen mensenhandel. Een integrale programma-aanpak van seksuele uitbuiting, arbeidsuitbuiting en criminele uitbuiting. https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/binaries/rijksoverheid/documenten/rapporten/2018/11/13/tk-bijlage-3-samen-tegen-mensenhandel/tkbijlage-3-samen-tegen-mensenhandel.pdf

Rijksoverheid. (2020a, 17 de diciembre). Wegwijzer mensenhandel. https://www.wegwijzermensenhandel.nl/

Rijksoverheid. (2020b, 18 de diciembre). Zorgcoördinatoren. https://www.wegwijzermensenhandel.nl/Zorgcoordinatoren/Zorgcoordinatoren.aspx

Ruiz, C., Stiplosek, D., Tortel, E., Machova, J. y Vudric, N. (2019). The identification of victims of human trafficking in transit and destination countries in Europe. A practical guideline for frontline workers. Croatian Red Cross y France terre d'asile. https://www.infomie.net/IMG/pdf/the-identification-of-victims-of-human-trafficking-in-transit-and-destination-countries-in-europe-a-practical-guideline-forfrontline-workers.pdf

Santos, B. (2019). Las víctimas de trata en España: el sistema de acogida de protección internacional. Anuario CIDOB de la Inmigración, 144-166. https://doi.org/10.24241/AnuarioCIDOBInmi.2019.144

Scholten, P. (2020). Mainstreaming versus alienation: conceptualising the role of complexity in migration and diversity policymaking. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 46(1), 108-126. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2019.1625758

Secretariat of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings. (2016). Compedium of good practices on the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings. Council of Europe. https://edoc.coe.int/en/trafficking-in-human-beings/7203-compendium-of-goodpractices-on-the-implementation-of-the-council-of-europe-convention-onaction-against-trafficking-in-human-beings.html

SICAR Cat y Proyecto Esperanza. (2019). Recomendaciones para el acceso efectivo de las víctimas de la trata de personas a la justicia y la compensación. https://www.proyectoesperanza.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Declaracion_Dossier_15_Oct_version_digital.pdf

Torres, N. y Villacampa, C. (2017). Protección jurídica y asistencia para víctimas de trata de seres humanos. Revista General de Derecho Penal, 27.

UK Government. (2020a, 22 de diciembre). National referral mechanism guidance: adult. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/human-trafficking-victims-referral-and-assessment-forms/guidance-on-the-national-referral-mechanism-forpotential-adult-victims-of-modern-slavery-england-and-wales

UK Government. (2020b, 22 de diciembre). Modern slavery victims: referral and assessment forms. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/human-trafficking-victims-referral-and-assessment-forms

UN – United Nations. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. (2014). Human Rights and Human Trafficking. Fact Sheet Nº 36. https://www.refworld.org/docid/5566d0e84.html

UNODC - United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2009). International Framework for Action to Implement the Trafficking in Persons Protocol. United Nations. https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/files/International%20Framework%20for%20Action%20to%20Implement%20the%20Trafficking%20in%20Persons%20Protocol.pdf

UNODC - United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2020). Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2020. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/tip/2021/GLOTiP_2020_15jan_web.pdf

UNICEF y IOM – International Organization for Migration. (2017). Harrowing Journeys: Children on the Move Across the Mediterranean Sea, at Risk of Trafficking and Exploitation. https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/harrowing_journeys.pdf

US Department of State. (2019). Trafficking in Persons Report 2019. United States Department of State Publication Office of the under Secretary for Civilian Security, Democracy, and Human Rights. https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/2019-Trafficking-in-Persons-Report.pdf

Van Dyke, R. (2017). Monitoring and Evaluation of Human Trafficking Partnerships in England and Wales. Anti-Trafficking Review, 8, 131-146. https://doi.org/10.14197/atr.20121788

Villacampa, C. (2011). La nueva directiva europea relativa a la prevención y la lucha contra la trata de seres humanos y a la protección de las víctimas ¿Cambio de rumbo de la política de la Unión en materia de trata de seres humanos? Revista electrónica de Ciencia Penal y Criminología. RECP, 13-14, 1-52.

Villacampa, C. (2014). Víctimas de la trata de seres humanos: su tutela a la Luz de las últimas reformas penales sustantivas y procesales proyectadas. Indret, 2, 1-31.

Villacampa, C. y Torres, N. (2016). Trata de seres humanos para explotación criminal: ausencia de identificación de las víctimas y sus efectos. Estudios Penales y Criminológicos, 36, 711-829.

Villacampa, C. y Torres, C. (2021). Aproximación institucional a la trata de seres humanos en España: valoración crítica. Estudios Penales y Criminológicos, 41, 1-28.

Villlacampa, C., Gómez, M. J., Torres, C. y Miranda, X. (2021). Trata de seres humanos: dimensión y características en España. Revista General de Derecho Penal, 35, 1-32.

Published

2022-06-08

How to Cite

Miranda Ruche, X., & Villacampa Estiarte, C. (2022). Human Trafficking and Migration: An Exploration of the Spanish Protection System from a Comparative Perspective. Migraciones. Publicación Del Instituto Universitario De Estudios Sobre Migraciones, (54), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.14422/mig.i54y2022.012

Issue

Section

Estudios