The frozen embryo dilemma
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.14422/pen.v81.i317.y2025.002Keywords:
In vitro fertilisation, Frozen embryos, Human embryo nature, Research on embryos, Embryo adoption, BioethicsAbstract
There are several millions of frozen human embryos around the world as a result of in vitro fertilization techniques. To shed some light on the possible destination of these embryos, present article starts reviewing their nature, especially considering the recent advances of Biology. The conclusion is that embryos cannot be longer contemplated as mere cell bundle, but as an individual organism of the Homo sapiens species. That is why the Catholic Church’s Magisterium condemns the destruction of human embryos, their use for research or therapeutics as well as their cryopreservation.
The proposed destinies of abandoned human embryos, namely their use for research of as a source of biological materials and their adoption, are next reviewed in the light of the scientific data and of the Magisterium, to conclude reiterating an appeal to stop all interventions involving the production of spare embryos.
Downloads
References
Ahmed, S. (2018). Embryo freezing and donation: Ethical-legal issues. ILI Law Review, Summer Issue, pp. 114-135.
Berkman, J. R. (2002). The morality of adopting frozen embryos in light of Donum Vitae. StMor, 40, pp. 115-141.
Berkman, J. R. (2003). Gestating the embryos of others. Natl. Catholic Bioethics Quart. 3, 309-329. https://doi.org/10.5840/ncbq20033256
Blackshaw, B. P., & Colgrove, N. (2020). Frozen embryos and the obligation to adopt. Bioethics, 34, pp. 857-861. https://doi.org/10.1111/bioe.12733
Clark, P. A. (2014). Ethical implications of embryo adoption. En C. S. Atwood & S. Vadakkadath Meethal (Eds.), Pluripotent Stem Cell Biology – Advances in Mechanisms, Methods and Models (pp. 213-229). IntechOpen Limited. https://doi.org/10.5772/58592
Cook, M. (2023). UK scientists can’t wait to get their hands on thousands of frozen human embryos. https://www.mercatornet.com/uk_scientists_can_t_wait_to_get_their_hands_on_thousands_of_frozen_human_embryos
Coorens, T. H. H., Moore, L., Robinson, P. S., Sanghvi, R., Christopher, J., Hewinson, J., Przybilla, M. J., Lawson, A. R. J., Spencer Chapman, M., Cagan, A., Oliver, T. R. W., Neville, M. D. C., Hooks, Y., Noorani, A., Mitchell, T. J., Fitzgerald, R. C., Campbell, P. J., Martincorena, I., Rahbari, R., & Stratton, M. R. (2021). Extensive phylogenies of human development inferred from somatic mutations. Nature, 597, pp. 387-392. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03790-y
Cox, G. F., Bürger, J., Lip, V., Mau, U. A., Sperling, K., Wu, B. L., & Horsthemke, B. (2002). Intracytoplasmic sperm injection may increase, the risk of imprinting defects. American Journal of Human Genetics, 71, pp. 162- 164. https://doi.org/10.1086/341096
Devlin, H. (2023, December 6). Call to help UK IVF patients donate unused embryos after shortage hinders research. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/science/2023/dec/06/call-to-help-ivf-patients-donate-unused-embryos-after-shortage-hinders-research
Douglas, T., & Savulescu, J. (2009). Destroying unwanted embryos in research. EMBO Reports, 10, 307-312. https://doi.org/10.1038/embor.2009.54
Dowling-Lacey, D., Mayer, J. F., Jones, E., Bocca, S., Stadtmauer, L., & Oehninger, S. (2011). Live birth from a frozen-thawed pronuclear stage embryo almost 20 years after its cryopreservation. Fertility and Sterility, 95, 1120.e1-3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.08.056
Dulbecco, R. (1988). Ingegneri della vita. Medicina e morale nell’era del DNA. Segrate (Italia): Sperling & Kupfer Editori, S. p. A.
Franco, L. (2001). Bioética y solidaridad. En G. M. Tomás Garrido (Ed.), Manual de Bioética (1a ed., pp. 83-95). Barcelona: Ariel.
Franco, L. (2010). Enfermedades huérfanas Un punto de encuentro entre la Medicina Clínica, la Biomedicina y la Bioética. Discurso de ingreso. Real Academia de Medicina de la Comunidad Valenciana.
Franco, L. (2012). El apasionante mundo de las células madre. RACSG, 105, pp. 327-352.
Gicquel, C., Gaston, V., Mandelbaum, J., Siffroi, J.-P., Flahault, A., & Le Bouc, Y. (2003). In vitro fertilization may increase the risk of Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome related to the abnormal imprinting of the KCNQ1OT gene. Am. J. Human Genet., 72, 1338-1341. https://doi.org/10.1086/374824
Gullo, G., Basile, G., Cucinella, G., Greco, M. E., & Perino, A. (2023). Fresh vs. frozen embryo transfer in assisted reproductive techniques: a single center
retrospective cohort study and ethical-legal implications. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharm. Sci., 27, pp. 6809-6823. https://doi.org/10.26355/eurrev_202307_33152
Haas, J., & Pacholczyk, R. T. (2023). Moral contraindications to the adoption of abandoned, frozen human embryos. Linacre Quarterly, 90, pp. 139-144. https://doi.org/10.1177/00243639231165252
Halliday, J., Oke, K., Breheny, S., Algar, E., & Amor, D. J. (2004). Beckwith- Wiedemann syndrome and IVF: A case-control study. American Journal of Human Genetics, 75, pp. 526-528.
Hyun, I. (2024). Dynamic models of human development and concepts of the individual. Cell, 187, pp. 3220-3223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2024.05.028
Junyent, S., Meglicki, M., Vetter, R., Mandelbaum, R., King, C., Patel, E. M., Iwamoto-Stohl, L., Reynell, C., Chen, D. Y., Rubino, P., Arrach, N., Paulson, R. J., Iber, D., & Zernicka-Goetz, M. (2024). The first two blastomeres contribute unequally to the human embryo. Cell, 187(11), pp. 2838-2854.e17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2024.04.029
Lane, M., Robker, R. L., & Robertson, S. A. (2014). Parenting from before conception. Science, 345, pp. 756-760. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1254400
Lasnoski, K. (2023). The moral basis for the adoption of abandoned, frozen human embryos. Linacre Quarterly, 90, pp. 135-138. https://doi.org/10.1177/00243639231165245
Li, X., Guo, P., Blockeel, C., Li, X., Deng, L., Yang, J., Li, C., Lin, M., Wu, H., Cai, G., Hu, Y., & Chen, X. (2023). Storage duration of vitrified embryos does not affect pregnancy and neonatal outcomes after frozen-thawed embryo transfer. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 14, 1148411. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2023.1148411
Locke, J. (1999). Ensayo Sobre el Entendimiento Humano (E. O’Gorman (ed.)). México, D. F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica.
Lovering, R. (2013). The substance view: A critique. Bioethics, 27, pp. 263- 270. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2011.01954.x
Lovering, R. (2020). A moral argument for frozen human embryo adoption. Bioethics, 34, pp. 242-251. https://doi.org/10.1111/bioe.12671
Malone, J. R. (2019). Ethics of cryopreserved embryo adoption: Defrosting Dignitas Personae. HCEUSA, Fall, 2-14.
Moreno, I., Capalbo, A., Mas, A., Garrido-Gomez, T., Roson, B., Poli, M., Dimitriadis, E., Santamaria, X., Vilella, F., & Simon, C. (2023). The human periconceptional maternal-embryonic space in health and disease. Physiological Reviews, 103, 1965-2038. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00050.2021
Mussa, A., Molinatto, C., Cerrato, F., Palumbo, O., Carella, M., Baldassarre, G., Carli, D., Peris, C., Riccio, A., & Ferrero, G. B. (2017). Assisted reproductive techniques and risk of Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome. Pediatrics, 140, e20164311. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-4311
Pacholczyk, T. (2009). What should we do with the frozen embryos? In Making Sense of Bioethics (Vol. 48). https://www.ncbcenter.org/making-sense-of-bioethics-cms/tag/Frozen+Embryos
Robertson, J. A. (1995). Ethical and legal issues in human embryo donation. Fertility and Sterility, 64, pp. 885-894. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0015-0282(16)57897-2
Sciorio, R., Tramontano, L., Campos, G., Greco, P. F., Mondrone, G., Surbone, A., Greco, E., Talevi, R., Pluchino, N., & Fleming, S. (2024). Vitrification of human blastocysts for couples undergoing assisted reproduction: an updated review. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology, 12, 1398049. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2024
Shen, C., Lamba, A., Zhu, M., Zhang, R., Zernicka-Goetz, M., & Yang, C. (2022). Stain-free detection of embryo polarization using deep learning. Scientific Reports, 12, 2404. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-05990-6
Spaemann, R. (1992). ¿Todos los hombres son personas? In Bioética. Consideraciones filosófico-teológicas sobre un tema actual (pp. 67-75). Madrid: Rialp.
Tabansky, I., Lenarcic, A., Draft, R. W., Loulier, K., Keskin, D. B., Rosains, J., Rivera-Feliciano, J., Lichtman, J. W., Livet, J., Stern, J. N. H., Sanes, J. R., & Eggan, K. (2013). Developmental bias in cleavage-stage mouse blastomeres. Current Biology, 23, pp. 21-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2012.10.054
Takahashi, K., Tanabe, K., Ohnuki, M., Narita, M., Ichisaka, T., Tomoda, K., & Yamanaka, S. (2007). Induction of pluripotent stem cells from adult human fibroblasts by defined factors. Cell, 131, pp. 861-872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2007.11.019
Takahashi, K., & Yamanaka, S. (2006). Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors. Cell, 126, pp. 663-676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2006.07.024
Tonti-Filippini, N. (2003). The embryo rescue debate. The National Catholic Bioethics Quarterly, Spring, pp. 111-137. https://doi.org/10.5840/ncbq20033181
Williams, G. (1990). Research on embryos. New Scientist, 125, pp. 70-71
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
The publishing Universidad Pontificia Comillas retain the copyright of articles published in Pensamiento. Reuse of content is allowed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivates 3.0 Unported. Authors are encouraged to publish their work on the Internet (for example, on institutional or personal pages, repositories, etc.) respecting the conditions of this license and quoting appropriately the original source.
